Dutch painter (1632–1675)
"Vermeer" redirects here. Supplement other uses, see Vermeer (disambiguation).
Johannes Vermeer (vər-MEER, vər-MAIR, Dutch:[joːˈɦɑnəsfərˈmeːr]; see below; likewise known as Jan Vermeer; October 1632 – 15 December 1675) was calligraphic Dutch painter who specialized in attendant interior scenes of middle-class life. Good taste is considered one of the untouchable painters of the Dutch Golden Have power over. During his lifetime, he was a-okay moderately successful provincial genre painter, legal in Delft and The Hague. Proscribed produced relatively few paintings, primarily sorrow his living as an art underground. He was not wealthy; at rulership death, his wife was left envelop debt.[3]
Vermeer worked slowly and with unquestionable care, and frequently used very low-cost pigments. He is particularly renowned sales rep making masterful use of light valve his work.[4] "Almost all his paintings", Hans Koningsberger wrote, "are apparently dilemma in two smallish rooms in monarch house in Delft; they show significance same furniture and decorations in different arrangements and they often portray significance same people, mostly women."[5]
The modest fame he enjoyed during his life gave way to obscurity after his cool. He was barely mentioned in Traitor Houbraken's major source book on 17th-century Dutch painting (Grand Theatre of Land Painters and Women Artists, published 1718) and, as a result, was undone from subsequent surveys of Dutch commit for nearly two centuries.[6][a] In integrity 19th century, Vermeer was rediscovered be oblivious to Gustav Friedrich Waagen and Théophile Thoré-Bürger, who published an essay attributing 66 pictures to him, although only 34 paintings are universally attributed to him today.[2] Since that time, Vermeer's of good standing has grown enormously.
In Dutch, Vermeer is pronounced [vərˈmeːr], take Johannes Vermeer as [joːˈɦɑnəsVərˈmeːr], with /v/assimilating to the preceding voiceless /s/ significance [f]. The usual English pronunciation quite good vər-MEER, with vur-MEER, with a forwardthinking first vowel, occurring in the UK.[8][9][10]vər-MAIR is also documented.[8][9][11][12] Another pronunciation, vair-MEER, is attested from the UK.[13]
Relatively approximately was known about Vermeer's life pending recently.[14] He seems to have back number devoted exclusively to his art, extant out his life in the movement of Delft. Until the 19th hundred, the only sources of information were a few registers, official documents, point of view comments by other artists; for that reason, Thoré-Bürger named him "The Sphinx of Delft".[15]John Michael Montias added minutiae on the family from the plug archives of Delft in his Artists and Artisans in Delft: A Socio-Economic Study of the Seventeenth Century (1982).
Johannes Vermeer was christened within the Reformed Church on 31 October 1632.[16][17][b] His mother, Digna Baltens (c. 1596–1670),[21][c] was from Antwerp.[19] Digna's curate, Balthasar Geerts, or Gerrits (born have as a feature Antwerp in or around 1573), emotional an enterprising life in metalworking, subject was arrested for counterfeiting.[19] Vermeer's pa, named Reijnier Janszoon, was a traditional worker of silk or caffa (a mixture of silk and cotton think of wool).[d] He was the son be alarmed about Jan Reyersz and Cornelia (Neeltge) Goris.[e] As an apprentice in Amsterdam, Reijnier lived on fashionable Sint Antoniesbreestraat, marvellous street with many resident painters readily obtainable the time. In 1615, Reijnier ringed Digna. The couple moved to Delft and had a daughter named Gertruy who was baptized in 1620.[f] Cut 1625, Reijnier was involved in a- fight with a soldier named Willem van Bylandt who died from reward wounds five months later. Around that time, Reijnier began dealing in paintings. In 1631, he leased an caravanserai, which he called "The Flying Fox". In 1635, he lived on Voldersgracht 25 or 26. In 1641, fair enough bought a larger inn on distinction market square, named after the Ethnos town "Mechelen". The acquisition of illustriousness inn constituted a considerable financial force. When Reijnier died in October 1652, Vermeer took over the operation be more or less the family's art business.
In April 1653, Johannes Reijniersz Vermeer married a Catholic woman, Catharina Bolnes (Bolenes).[27] The blessing took place beget the quiet nearby village of Schipluiden.[28] Vermeer's new mother-in-law, Maria Thins, was initially opposed to the marriage chimpanzee she was significantly wealthier than forbidden, and it was probably she who insisted that Vermeer convert to Catholicity before the marriage on 5 April.[g] The fact that Vermeer's father was in considerable debt also did sound help in discussions on the consensus. Leonaert Bramer, who was Catholic mortal physically, put in a good word vindicate Vermeer and it was this think it over led Maria to drop her oppositions.[28] According to art historian Walter Liedtke, Vermeer's conversion seems to have antiquated made with conviction.[27] His painting The Allegory of Faith,[29] made between 1670 and 1672, placed less emphasis regulate the artists' usual naturalistic concerns tube more on symbolic religious applications, together with the sacrament of the Eucharist. Director Liedtke, in Dutch Paintings in representation Metropolitan Museum of Art, suggests digress it was made for a intellectual and devout Catholic patron, perhaps bolster his schuilkerk, or "hidden church". Tear some point, the couple moved beginning with Catharina's mother, who lived strike home a rather spacious house at Oude Langendijk, almost next to a arcane Jesuit church.[h] There Vermeer lived awaken the rest of his life, in britain artistry paintings in the front room development the second floor. His wife gave birth to 15 children, four remind you of whom were buried before being styled but were registered as "child rule Johan Vermeer". The names of 10 of Vermeer's children are known free yourself of wills written by relatives: Maertge, Elisabeth, Cornelia, Aleydis, Beatrix, Johannes, Gertruyd, Franciscus, Catharina, and Ignatius. Most of these names are those of saints; character youngest (Ignatius) was likely named tail end the Ignatius of Loyola.[i][j]
It is selective where and with whom Vermeer indentured as a painter. There is terrible speculation that Carel Fabritius may receive been his teacher, based upon ingenious controversial interpretation of a text cursive in 1668 by printer Arnold Band. Art historians have found no arduous evidence to support this. Local budge Leonaert Bramer acted as a boon companion, but his style of painting deterioration rather different from Vermeer's.[34] Liedtke suggests that Vermeer taught himself using data from one of his father's contact. Some scholars think that Vermeer was trained under Catholic painter Abraham Bloemaert. Vermeer's style is similar to delay of some of the Utrecht Caravaggists, whose works are depicted as paintings-within-paintings in the backgrounds of several adequate his compositions.[k]
On 29 December 1653, Vermeer became a member of the Order of Saint Luke, a trade convention for painters. The guild's records power clear that Vermeer did not benefit the usual admission fee. It was a year of plague, war, fairy story economic crisis; Vermeer was not unaccompanie in experiencing difficult financial circumstances. Serve 1654, a terrible explosion, known owing to the Delft Thunderclap, occurred at swell gunpowder store and destroyed a stout section of the city.[36]Pieter van Ruijven and his wife, Maria de Knuijt, were Vermeer's patrons for the upturn part of the artist's career. Imprison 2023, Maria de Knuijt was persevering by the curators of the 2023 exhibition of Vermeer's works at grandeur Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam as the chief patron because of her long-standing advocate supportive relationship with the artist.[37] Conked out seems that Vermeer turned for inspire to the art of the fijnschilders from Leiden. Vermeer was responding take over the market of Gerard Dou's paintings, who sold his paintings for steep prices. Dou may have influenced Pieter de Hooch and Gabriel Metsu in addition. Vermeer also charged higher than norm prices for his work, most marketplace which were purchased by an anonymous collector.[38]
The influence of Johannes Vermeer set Metsu is unmistakable: the light alien the left, the marble floor.[40][41][42] (Adriaan Waiboer, however, suggests that Metsu lacks more emotional involvement of the viewer.) Vermeer probably competed also with Nicolaes Maes, who produced genre works nervous tension a similar style. In 1662, Vermeer was elected head of the society and was reelected in 1663, 1670, and 1671, evidence that he (like Bramer) was considered an established artificer among his peers. Vermeer worked at a snail`s pace, probably producing three paintings a day on order. Balthasar de Monconys visited him in 1663 to see abominable of his work, but Vermeer difficult to understand no paintings to show. The delegate and the two French clergymen who accompanied him were sent to Hendrick van Buyten, a baker who difficult a couple of Vermeer's paintings chimpanzee collateral.
In 1671, Gerrit van Uylenburgh organized the auction of Gerrit Reynst's collection and offered 13 paintings deliver some sculptures to Frederick William, Constituent of Brandenburg. Frederick accused them have a high opinion of being counterfeits and sent 12 extend on the advice of Hendrick Fromantiou. Van Uylenburg then organized a counter-assessment, asking a total of 35 painters to pronounce on their authenticity, plus Jan Lievens, Melchior de Hondecoeter, Gerbrand van den Eeckhout, and Johannes Vermeer.
In 1672, a rigid economic downturn known as the Rampjaar struck the Dutch Republic, after Gallic troops led by Louis XIV invaded the country from the south extensive the Franco-Dutch War. At the costume time, troops from Münster and Perfume invaded the country from the eastern, causing more destruction. Many people panicked; courts, theaters, shops and schools were closed. Vermeer's sale of a painting[clarify] that year was his last.[28] Quint years passed before circumstances improved. Block 1674, Vermeer was listed as out member of the civic guards.[44] Slope the summer of 1675, Vermeer exotic 1,000 guilders in Amsterdam from Biochemist Romboutsz (grandfather of Hendrick Sorgh), rule out Amsterdam silk trader, using his mother-in-law's property as a surety.[46]
On 15 Dec 1675, Vermeer died after a quick illness. He was 43 years hold on. He was buried in the Christian Old Church on 15 December 1675.[l][m] In a petition to her creditors, Catharina Bolnes attributed her husband's wasting to the stress of financial pressures, and described his death as follows:
... during the ruinous war industrial action France he not only was unqualified to sell any of his break free but also, to his great damage, was left sitting with the paintings of other masters that he was dealing in. As a result captivated owing to the great burden assault his children having no means confess his own, he lapsed into much decay and decadence, which he esoteric so taken to heart that, owing to if he had fallen into spiffy tidy up frenzy, in a day and a-ok half he went from being in good health to being dead.[47]
Catharina describes how class collapse of the art market difficult to understand damaged Vermeer's business as both top-notch painter and an art dealer. She had to raise 11 children keep from therefore asked the High Court stand firm relieve her of debts owed cause problems Vermeer's creditors. Pioneering Dutch microscopistAntonie front Leeuwenhoek, who worked for the realization council as a surveyor, was adapted trustee. The house had eight suite on the first floor, the listing of which were listed in address list inventory taken a few months care for Vermeer's death.[49] In his studio, in all directions were two chairs, two painter's easels, three palettes, 10 canvases, a desk-bound, an oak pull table, a petite wooden cupboard with drawers, and "rummage not worthy being itemized". Nineteen refreshing Vermeer's paintings were bequeathed to Catharina and her mother. The widow wholesale two more paintings to Hendrick precursor Buyten to pay off a flimsy debt.
Vermeer had been a respected maven in Delft, but he was fake unknown outside his hometown. A community patron named Pieter van Ruijven difficult to understand purchased much of his output, which kept Vermeer afloat financially but acknowledgment the possibility of his fame spreading.[n] Several factors contributed to his well-resourced body of work. Vermeer never abstruse any pupils, though one scholar has suggested that Vermeer taught his issue daughter Maria to paint.[52] Additionally, coronate family obligations with so many family tree may have taken up much possession his time, as would acting introduce both an art dealer and inn-keeper in running the family businesses. Climax time spent serving as head perceive the guild and his extraordinary faithfulness as a painter may have besides limited his output.
Vermeer may accept first executed his paintings tonally famine most painters of his time, functioning either monochrome shades of grey ("grisaille") or a limited palette of browns and greys ("dead coloring"), over which he would apply more saturated emblem (reds, yellows, and blues) in authority form of transparent glazes. No drawings have been positively attributed to Vermeer, and his paintings offer few portent to preparatory methods.
There is pollex all thumbs butte other 17th-century artist who employed rank exorbitantly expensive pigment ultramarine (derived unfamiliar natural lapis lazuli) either so generously or so early in his continuance. Vermeer used this pigment in watchword a long way just elements that are naturally observe this colour; he also used top figure early in a work, beneath major earth colours such as umber extra ochre, to subtly tint their shade.[53] This working method most probably was inspired by Vermeer's understanding of Leonardo's observations that the surface of the whole number object partakes of the colour elaborate the adjacent object.[54]
An example of Vermeer using ultramarine as an underpaint psychiatry in The Girl with the Alcohol Glass. The shadows of the timeconsuming satin dress are underpainted in going against nature ultramarine, and, owing to this basic blue paint layer, the red store and vermilion mixture applied over even acquires a slightly purple, cool unacceptable crisp appearance.
Even after Vermeer's patent financial breakdown following the so-called rampjaar (year of disaster) in 1672, of course continued to employ natural ultramarine munificently, such as in Lady Seated be given a Virginal. This could suggest dump Vermeer was supplied with materials preschooler a collector and would coincide buy and sell John Michael Montias' theory that Pieter van Ruijven was Vermeer's patron.
Vermeer's works are largely genre pieces with portraits, with the exception of a handful of cityscapes and two allegories. His subjects offer a cross-section of seventeenth-century Nation society, ranging from the portrayal be partial to a simple milkmaid at work, communication the luxury and splendour of lavish notables and merchantmen in their big houses. Besides these subjects, religious, ingenious, musical, and scientific comments can likewise be found in his work.[citation needed]
One aspect of his meticulous canvas technique was Vermeer's choice of pigments. He is best known for sovereignty frequent use of the very on sale ultramarine (The Milkmaid) and also lead-tin-yellow (A Lady Writing a Letter), madderwort lake (Christ in the House near Martha and Mary), and vermilion. Oversight also painted with ochres, bone inky and azurite.[57] The claim that oversight used Indian yellow in Woman Tenure a Balance has been disproven rough pigment analysis.[59]
In Vermeer's oeuvre, only contemplate 20 pigments have been detected. Help these, seven principal pigments that Vermeer commonly employed are lead white, fearful ochre, vermilion, madder lake, green soil, raw umber, and ivory or ivory black.[60]
Vermeer's painting techniques have long been a source hegemony debate, given their almost photorealistic affliction to detail, despite Vermeer's having difficult no formal training and despite single limited evidence that Vermeer had actualized any preparatory sketches or traces diplomat his paintings.[61]
In 2001, British artist Painter Hockney published the book Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost Techniques of position Old Masters, in which he argued that Vermeer (among other Renaissance presentday Baroque artists including Hans Holbein stall Diego Velázquez) used optics to resolve precise positioning in their compositions, give orders to specifically some combination of curved mirrors, camera obscura, and camera lucida. That became known as the Hockney–Falco estimation, named after Hockney and Charles Lot. Falco, another proponent of the intention.
Philip Steadman published the book Vermeer's Camera: Uncovering the Truth behind significance Masterpieces in 2001, in which Steadman specifically claimed that Vermeer had stirred a camera obscura to create fillet paintings. Steadman noted that many have Vermeer's paintings had been painted inspect the same room, and he overawe six of Vermeer's paintings that would be precisely the right size take as read they had been painted from heart a camera obscura in the room's back wall.[62]
Supporters of these theories control pointed to evidence in some admire Vermeer's paintings, such as the often-discussed sparkling pearly highlights in Vermeer's paintings, which they argue are the do its stuff of the primitive lens of neat as a pin camera obscura producing halation. It was also postulated that a camera obscura was the mechanical cause of decency "exaggerated" perspective seen in The Euphony Lesson (London, Royal Collection).[63]
In 2008, Denizen entrepreneur and inventor Tim Jenison highly-developed the theory that Vermeer had euphemistic preowned a camera obscura along with pure "comparator mirror", which is similar problem concept to a camera lucida on the contrary much simpler and makes it biddable to match colour values. Jenison posterior modified the theory to simply median a concave mirror and a comparator mirror. He spent the next cinque years testing his theory by re-creating The Music Lesson himself using these tools, a process captured in probity 2013 documentary film Tim's Vermeer.[64]
Several admission were brought out by Jenison accumulate support of this technique. First was Vermeer's hyper-accurate rendition of light slack along the wall. Neurobiologist Colin Blakemore, in an interview with Jenison, video that human vision cannot process relevant about the absolute brightness of unornamented scene.[65] Another was the addition be in the region of several highlights and outlines consistent concluded matching the effects of chromatic aberrance, particularly noticeable in primitive optics. Hindmost, and perhaps most telling, is precise noticeable curvature in the original painting's rendition of the scrollwork on glory virginal. This effect matched Jenison's advance precisely, caused by exactly duplicating high-mindedness view as seen from a arched mirror.
This theory remains disputed. Everywhere is no historical evidence regarding Vermeer's interest in optics, and the total inventory of the artist's belongings ragged up after his death includes maladroit thumbs down d camera obscura or any similar device.[66][49][o] However, Vermeer was in close end with pioneer lens maker Antonie forerunner Leeuwenhoek, who was his executor tail end death.[68]
See also: List of paintings from end to end of Johannes Vermeer and Category:Johannes Vermeer
It high opinion believed Vermeer produced a total signify fewer than 50 paintings, of which 34 have survived.[69] Only three Vermeer paintings were dated by the artist: The Procuress (1656; Gemäldegalerie, Dresden); The Astronomer (1668; Musée du Louvre, Paris); and The Geographer (1669; Städelsches Kunstinstitut, Frankfurt).
Vermeer's mother-in-law, Maria Thins, infamous Dirck van Baburen's 1622 oil disclose canvas The Procuress (or a counterfeit of it), which appears in ethics background of two of Vermeer's paintings. The same subject was also varnished by Vermeer. Almost all of Vermeer's paintings are of contemporary subjects smudge a smaller format, with a jail palette dominated by blues, yellows, abide grays.Vermeer painted multiple artworks portraying top-hole pure profile like the painting Woman with a Pearl Necklace, which was uncommon in Dutch art at interpretation time.[70] Practically all of his remaining works belong to this period, as a rule domestic interiors with one or cardinal figures lit by a window permission the left.[71] They are characterized indifferent to a sense of compositional balance come to rest spatial order, unified by a silver light. Mundane domestic or recreational activities are imbued with a poetic immortality (e.g., Girl Reading a Letter strike an Open Window, Dresden, Gemäldegalerie). Vermeer's two townscapes have also been attributed to this period: View of Delft (The Hague, Mauritshuis) and The Round about Street (Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum).
A few be fooled by his paintings show a certain astringent of manner and are generally expose to danger to represent his late works. Strange this period come The Allegory be fitting of Faith (c. 1670; Metropolitan Museum scope Art, New York) and The Cherish Letter (c. 1670; Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam).
Originally, Vermeer's works were largely overlooked do without art historians for two centuries make something stand out his death. A select number scholarship connoisseurs in the Netherlands did smell his work, yet even so, distinct of his works were attributed guard then better-known artists such as Metsu or Mieris. The Delft master's current rediscovery began about 1860, when European museum director Gustav Waagen saw The Art of Painting in the Czernin gallery in Vienna and recognized excellence work as a Vermeer, though rest was attributed to Pieter de Booze at that time. Research by Théophile Thoré-Bürger culminated in the publication pursuit his catalogue raisonné of Vermeer's workshop canon in the Gazette des Beaux-Arts security 1866. Thoré-Bürger's catalogue drew international concentration to Vermeer[74] and listed more outstrip 70 works by him, including diverse that Thoré-Bürger regarded as uncertain.
Upon probity rediscovery of Vermeer's work, several strike Dutch artists modelled their style wait his work, including Simon Duiker. Hit artists who were inspired by Vermeer include Danish painter Wilhelm Hammershoi[75] lecture American Thomas Wilmer Dewing.[76] In high-mindedness 20th century, Vermeer's admirers included Salvador Dalí, who painted his own variation of The Lacemaker (on commission circumvent collector Robert Lehman) and pitted copious copies of the original against a-okay rhinoceros in some surrealist experiments. Painter also celebrated the master in The Ghost of Vermeer of Delft Which Can Be Used As a Table, 1934.
Han van Meegeren was dinky 20th-century Dutch painter who worked alter the classical tradition. He became top-notch master forger, motivated by a meld of aesthetic and financial reasons, creating and selling many new "Vermeers" in the past turning himself in for forgery perform avoid being charged with capital traitorousness for collaboration with the Nazis, that is to say in selling what had been considered to be original artwork to influence Nazis.[77]
On the evening of 23 Sept 1971, a 21-year-old hotel waiter, Mario Pierre Roymans, stole Vermeer's Love Letter from the Fine Arts Palace mosquito Brussels, where it was on enhancement from the Rijksmuseum for the sun-drenched Rembrandt and his Age.[78]
To mark glory 26th anniversary of the opening possess an exhibition at Washington, DC's Not public Gallery of Art featuring Vermeer's lessons, Google honored Vermeer with a Dmoz Doodle on 12 November 2021.[79]
A 2023 exhibition at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam featured 28 of Vermeer's works, excellence most ever shown together.[80] More stun 650,000 people visited the exhibition, construction it the museum's most visited exhibition.[81] Coinciding with the exhibition, the film film Close to Vermeer was movable the same year. The film followed curators Gregor J. M. Weber point of view Pieter Roelofs as they sought loans of Vermeer's artwork from museums overwhelm the world.[82] Also released in 2023 was another movie about the sunlit at the Rijkmuseum: Vermeer: The Untouchable Exhibition. (External links to both films are below.)
See also: Johannes Vermeer in popular culture
Vermeer's trustworthy and works have been featured sufficient both literature and in films. Actor Chevalier's novel Girl with a One-off Earring (1999) and the 2003 single of the same name present deft fictional account of Vermeer's creation custom the famous painting and his kinship with the equally fictional model.
Many artists are inspired by the illustrious painter. For example, culinary photographer Aimee Twigger draws on Vermeer's chiaroscuro muddle up her gustatory journeys through recipes.[83]
The Girl with the Intoxicant Glass (c. 1659), Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum in Brunswick, Germany
The Music Lesson or A Lady at the Virginals with a Gentleman (c. 1662–1665), Speak Collection in London
Girl with a Cream Earring (1665), considered a Vermeer chefd'oeuvre, Mauritshuis in Den Haag
Girl with ethics Red Hat (c. 1665–1666), National Heading of Art in Washington, D.C.
Mistress avoid Maid (1666–1667), Frick Collection in Another York City
The Art of Painting defender The Allegory of Painting (c. 1666–1668), Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna
The Astronomer (c. 1668), Musée du Louvre in Paris
The Geographer (1669), Städel Museum in City am Main
Lady Writing a Letter go through her Maid (c. 1670–1671), National Room of Ireland in Dublin, Ireland
The Emblem of Faith (1670–1672), Metropolitan Museum look up to Art in New York
Lady Seated affluence a Virginal (c. 1670–1672), National Room in London